Chemistry For General Secondary Certificate - Two Terms كيمياء للمرحلة الثانوية "باللغة الإنجليزية"

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Chemistry For General Secondary Certificate - Two Terms كيمياء للمرحلة الثانوية "باللغة الإنجليزية"

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Chapter One

Atomic structure - Summary
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Atomic structure

- atom: "A" means "no" and "tom" means "divide".
- Aristotle: Believed that all matters are composed of four componenets (water – air – dust – fire).
- Boyle define the element as "a pure simple substance that cannot be changed to simpler forms by the traditional chemical methods.
- Dalton's atomic theorys – the matter is composed of atoms which are undividable and each element have a certain type of atoms.
- Cathode rays: Consists of fine negative particles, move in straight lines, and have a thermal effect. They are affected by both electric and magnetic field. They do not differ in behavior or in nature if the material of the cathode or the used gas are changed. All element contain cathode rays.
- Thomson's model: the atom is a sphere of a uniform positive electricity and embedded in it equal number of –ve electrons. So, the atom is electrically neutral.

Rutherford's experiment:
1- The most of alpha (a) particles hit the same places, so, most of the atomic volume is empty sapce.
2- very small % of (a ) particles did not penetrate the gold foil and reflected back, so, the atom contain high density nucleus.
3- A very small % of (a ) particles deflected, so the nucleus is positive charge.

Rutherford's Atom:
It is a vast space, its structure is similar to the solar system.

- The nucleus of the atom is very small, at the centre (positivly charged)

- The atom is electrically netural because the number of positive charges (protons) equals the No. of negative charges (electrons).

- The electrons never fall inside the nucleus because the electrons are affected by two equal forces in quanitity and oppose direction:
o The attractive force.
o The centrifugal force.

- Most of the atomic mass is concentrated in the nucleus because the mass of electrons can be neglected if it is compared to the mass of nucleus components.

- Maxwell's theory is the most important that contradicted RutherFord's theory, it states that when an electrically charged particle moves in an orbit around a fixed body of a different charge, it loses apart of its energy in the form of light radiations resulting a gradual decrease in the orbit radius.

- By applying this theory; the electron as a negative particle moves around the nucleus as a fixed positive particle, we would expect that the electron is in a state of continous emission to energy therefore the electron revolves in a spiral orbit until it fall in the nucleus causing removing of the atomic system.

Bhohr's atom
:
- The atom is a positive nucleus, and negative electrons rotate around the nucleus in definite energy levels.

- Each level has a definite energy which increases as the distance from the nucleus increases, i.e the energy levels differ in energy from each other.
(K) energy level has a principle quantum no. equal (1) , and (L) level has a principle quantum no. equal (2) and so on until the seventh level.

- The electrons revolve around the nucleus in a number of energy levels which are constant and definite. So electrons can not be found at intermediate distances.

- The atom never emit radiations in the normal state, but emission is only produced from the excited atom.
- The difference in energy between the energy levels is not equal, and decreases gradually further from the nucleus.
- The electron does not leave its energy level to another unless the energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the energy difference between the two levels.
- The quantum: is the amount of energy absorbed or emmitted when the electron jumps from one energy level to another, and it differs according to the difference between the two levels.
- The quantum is neither divided nor doubled; i.e there is no half quantum or 2 quantums.

- The advantages of Bohr's theory:
1- He explained the hydrogen atom spectrum.
2- He was the first who introduced the idea of quantized energy states for the electron in the atom.
3- He reconciliated between Ruhterford and Maxwell theories, that he considered that radiations are emited from the excited atom only.

The disadvantages of Bohr's Theory
1- He failed to explain the spectra of atoms of the heavier elements.
2- He postulated that both the speed and the location of the electron can be determined at the same time.
3- He did not consider the wave properties of the electron, he only considered the electron as a particle.
4- He considered the electron moving in a circular plannar orbit i.e The atom is planar. It is proved that the atom has the three dimensions in space x, y, z.

De Broglie Principle
Every moving body is associated with a wave motion which has some properties of light waves.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
: It is practically impossible to determine both position and velocity of the electron exactly at the same time, but it undergo to propabilities laws.

-The electron cloud:
It is the propability of finding the electron in all direction and dimensions around the nucleus of the atom.

Quatum numbers:
They are numbers that define orbitals, their energy, their shapes, and their directions according to the atom axis.:
a- The principal quantum number (n)
b- The subsidiary quantum number (l
c- The magnetic quantum number (m
d- The spin quantum number (ms)

- Principal quantum number (n):
It defines the number of the main energy levels in the atom, the number of orbitals in each energy level from the role (n2), and the number of electrons in each energy level from the role (2n2).

- Subsidiary quantum numberl (l):
It defines the no. of energy sublevels in each principal energy level, its no. equals the no. of the principal energy level that it follows until the fourth principal level. For example (K) level contains one energy sublevel, (L) level contains two, (M) level contains three, and (N) level contains four energy sublevels.

- Magnetic quantum number (m)
It defines the no. of orbitals in the energy sublevels, and their space directions. They are odd numbers (1), (3), (5) or (7).

- Sublevel (s) has nonorbital ospsherical symmetrical shape.
- The sublevel (p) consists of three orbitals (x, y and z) each one is perpendicular to the other two.
- The electron could of each oritbtal take the form of two pears meeting head to head (dumb – bell. Shaped) at a node.

- Spin quantum number (ms)
It describes the type of the spin motion of an electron around its axis in either a clockwise or anti-clockwise.
- Sublevel (s) is saturated with two electrons, since it contains one orbital.
Sublevel (p) is saturated with six electrons, that it contains three orbitals.
- Sublevel (d) is filled with ten electrons because it has five orbtials.
- Sublevel (f) is filled with 14 electrons that it contains 7 orbitals.

- Aufbaul (building-up) principle
Electrons must occupy sublevels which have the lowest energy at first then occypy sublevels which have higher energy.
[ 15 < 2s < 2p < 3p < 4s < 3d ]

- Hund's Rule:
The electrons in sublevel preffered to occupy independent orbitals beofre its pairing.

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